Advanced age is accompanied by a decline of immune functions, which may play a role in low efficacy of vaccinations in elderly people. However, it is yet unclear at which level age-intrinsic mechanisms and external factors (namely the co-infections with persistent viruses) cooperate, contributing to immunosenescence. The aim of this work was to unravel the age-dependent interplay between the host immune system and 3 main herpesviruses: HSV-1, CMV ad EBV. To reach this scope, I focused on the effect of persistent infections on immunosenescence and of immunosenescence on the immune responses to infections. Three main questions were addressed: 1) May persistent viral infections influence the T-cell compartment and immune responsiveness in older adults? 2) How age affects the memory responses to herpesviruses? 3) How age affects the naïve responses to primary infections (SARS-CoV-2)? To this aim, I first assessed immunological parameters, related to CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responsiveness, according to the serological status for common latent herpesviruses in two independent cohorts: 1. healthy individuals aged 19y to 95y and 2. individuals above 70y old enrolled in a primo-vaccination clinical trial (n= 137). Results show a prevalent effect of age and CMV infection on CD8+ and CD4+ naive T cells respectively. CMV seropositivity was associated with blunted CD4+ T-cell and antibody responses to primary vaccination against tick-borne encephalitis virus. The concomitant presence of different persistent infections is also responsible of the accumulation (inflation) of late-differentiated memory T cells in older subjects. Then, I measured HSV-, CMV- and EBV-specific cellular responses in middle-aged and elderly adults from Cohort 1 dissecting the secretory capacity of distinct memory subsets. Notably, an age-related increase of late-differentiated, HSV-specific memory CD8+ T cells is observed, suggesting that HSV-1 participate to the memory inflation of the CD8 compartment. In addition, a concomitant decrease of secretory capacity upon general TCR stimulation is noticed in early/intermediate differentiated memory CD8+ T cells. Finally, to confirm whether primary CD8+ T-cell responses are defective in advanced age and assess potential consequences, an in vitro approach to prime SARS-CoV-2-specific naive CD8+ T cells from healthy, unexposed donors of different age groups was exploited. Being an emerging infection, SARS-CoV-2 is the perfect model to study primary responses in unexposed subjects. Compared to younger adults, older individuals display a poor SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell priming capacity in terms of both magnitude and quality of the response. In addition, older subjects recognize a lower number of epitopes. Collectively, these data implicate that immune ageing is associated with altered primary responses. This implies that elderly subjects present with a low SARS-CoV-2-specific cellular immunity. As virus-specific CD8+ T-cells have shown to be protective toward critical COVID-19 manifestations, an age-related suboptimal cellular immunity may contribute to the age-pattern of the disease. Moreover, the concomitant infection with CMV negatively affects, in elderly individuals, CD4-mediated response and thus both cellular and humoral immunity. This may further explain the reduced responses to emerging infections and de-novo vaccination with advanced age. Overall, recall T-cell responses are less affected by age. Nonetheless, herpesviruses cause an “inflation” of late-differentiated memory cells that could negatively impact on immunological memory towards other antigen specificities (e.g. previously administered vaccines) and is a sign of frequent viral reactivation in life. Altogether, these data provide insights on the changes in adaptive immunity over time and the associated decline in vaccine efficacy with ageing. This knowledge is important for the management of infectious diseases in elderly populations.

Il processo di invecchiamento è accompagnato da un declino delle funzioni immunitarie che può svolgere un ruolo importante nella bassa efficacia delle vaccinazioni nelle persone anziane. Tuttavia, non è chiaro se esista una cooperazione fra meccanismi intrinseci legati all'età e fattori esterni (come le infezioni con virus persistenti) nella progressione dell'immunosenescenza. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è di studiare l'interazione tra il sistema immunitario dell'ospite e 3 principali herpesvirus (HSV-1, CMV ed EBV). Per raggiungere questo scopo, mi sono concentrato prima sull'effetto delle infezioni persistenti sull'immunosenescenza e, successivamente, sull'effetto dell'immunosenescenza sulle risposte immunitarie alle infezioni. Sono state quindi affrontate 3 domande principali: 1) Le infezioni virali persistenti possono influenzare il compartimento delle cellule T e la risposta immunitaria negli anziani? 2) In che modo l'età influenza le risposte memoria agli herpesvirus? 3) In che modo l'età influenza le risposte alle infezioni primarie (prendendo, a modello, SARS-CoV-2)? Ho inizialmente valutato parametri immunologici relativi ai linfociti T in base allo stato sierologico per i comuni herpesvirus latenti in due coorti indipendenti: 1. individui sani di età compresa tra 19 e 95 anni e 2. individui di età superiore a 70 anni arruolati in uno studio clinico vaccinale. I risultati mostrano, rispettivamente, un effetto prevalente dell'età e dell'infezione da CMV sulle cellule T naive CD8+ e CD4+. Infatti, la sieropositività al CMV è stata associata a una ridotta risposta CD4 e anticorpale in seguito ad una vaccinazione primaria contro encefalite da zecca. La concomitante presenza di diverse infezioni persistenti è inoltre responsabile dell'accumulo (“inflazione”) di cellule T di memoria altamente differenziate nei soggetti più anziani. Quindi, ho misurato le risposte cellulari specifiche per HSV-1, CMV ed EBV in adulti e anziani della Coorte 1, analizzando la capacità secretoria delle diverse sottopopolazioni memoria. In particolare, si è osservato un aumento correlato all'età di cellule T CD8+ di memoria altamente differenziate specifiche per HSV-1, suggerendo che questo virus partecipi all'inflazione del compartimento memoria CD8. Inoltre, si è notato una concomitante diminuzione della capacità secretoria in seguito a stimolazione generale del TCR nelle cellule T CD8+ di memoria poco differenziate. Infine, per confermare se le risposte primarie delle cellule T CD8+ siano difettose in età avanzata ed investigarne le potenziali conseguenze, è stato sfruttato un approccio in vitro per indurre il priming di cellule T CD8+ naive specifiche per SARS-CoV-2 di donatori non esposti al virus, appartenenti a diversi gruppi di età. Rispetto agli adulti più giovani, gli individui anziani mostrano una scarsa capacità di innesco delle cellule T specifiche per SARS-CoV-2 in termini sia di intensità che di qualità della risposta. Inoltre, i soggetti più anziani riconoscono un numero inferiore di epitopi. Nel loro insieme, questi dati suggeriscono fortemente che l'invecchiamento immunitario è associato a risposte primarie alterate. Poiché le cellule T CD8+ virus-specifiche hanno dimostrato di essere protettive nei confronti delle manifestazioni critiche di COVID-19, un'immunità cellulare subottimale può contribuire alla suscettibilità dei soggetti anziani a forme gravi di COVID-19. Inoltre, l'infezione concomitante con CMV influenza negativamente, negli individui anziani, la risposta mediata da CD4 e quindi l'immunità sia cellulare che umorale. Nel complesso, le risposte delle cellule T memoria sono meno influenzate dall'età. Tuttavia, gli herpesvirus causano un’inflazione delle cellule di memoria differenziate che potrebbero avere un impatto negativo sulla memoria immunologica.

Interactions between herpesviruses and the human immune system in old age

NICOLI, Francesco
2022

Abstract

Advanced age is accompanied by a decline of immune functions, which may play a role in low efficacy of vaccinations in elderly people. However, it is yet unclear at which level age-intrinsic mechanisms and external factors (namely the co-infections with persistent viruses) cooperate, contributing to immunosenescence. The aim of this work was to unravel the age-dependent interplay between the host immune system and 3 main herpesviruses: HSV-1, CMV ad EBV. To reach this scope, I focused on the effect of persistent infections on immunosenescence and of immunosenescence on the immune responses to infections. Three main questions were addressed: 1) May persistent viral infections influence the T-cell compartment and immune responsiveness in older adults? 2) How age affects the memory responses to herpesviruses? 3) How age affects the naïve responses to primary infections (SARS-CoV-2)? To this aim, I first assessed immunological parameters, related to CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responsiveness, according to the serological status for common latent herpesviruses in two independent cohorts: 1. healthy individuals aged 19y to 95y and 2. individuals above 70y old enrolled in a primo-vaccination clinical trial (n= 137). Results show a prevalent effect of age and CMV infection on CD8+ and CD4+ naive T cells respectively. CMV seropositivity was associated with blunted CD4+ T-cell and antibody responses to primary vaccination against tick-borne encephalitis virus. The concomitant presence of different persistent infections is also responsible of the accumulation (inflation) of late-differentiated memory T cells in older subjects. Then, I measured HSV-, CMV- and EBV-specific cellular responses in middle-aged and elderly adults from Cohort 1 dissecting the secretory capacity of distinct memory subsets. Notably, an age-related increase of late-differentiated, HSV-specific memory CD8+ T cells is observed, suggesting that HSV-1 participate to the memory inflation of the CD8 compartment. In addition, a concomitant decrease of secretory capacity upon general TCR stimulation is noticed in early/intermediate differentiated memory CD8+ T cells. Finally, to confirm whether primary CD8+ T-cell responses are defective in advanced age and assess potential consequences, an in vitro approach to prime SARS-CoV-2-specific naive CD8+ T cells from healthy, unexposed donors of different age groups was exploited. Being an emerging infection, SARS-CoV-2 is the perfect model to study primary responses in unexposed subjects. Compared to younger adults, older individuals display a poor SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell priming capacity in terms of both magnitude and quality of the response. In addition, older subjects recognize a lower number of epitopes. Collectively, these data implicate that immune ageing is associated with altered primary responses. This implies that elderly subjects present with a low SARS-CoV-2-specific cellular immunity. As virus-specific CD8+ T-cells have shown to be protective toward critical COVID-19 manifestations, an age-related suboptimal cellular immunity may contribute to the age-pattern of the disease. Moreover, the concomitant infection with CMV negatively affects, in elderly individuals, CD4-mediated response and thus both cellular and humoral immunity. This may further explain the reduced responses to emerging infections and de-novo vaccination with advanced age. Overall, recall T-cell responses are less affected by age. Nonetheless, herpesviruses cause an “inflation” of late-differentiated memory cells that could negatively impact on immunological memory towards other antigen specificities (e.g. previously administered vaccines) and is a sign of frequent viral reactivation in life. Altogether, these data provide insights on the changes in adaptive immunity over time and the associated decline in vaccine efficacy with ageing. This knowledge is important for the management of infectious diseases in elderly populations.
MARCONI, Peggy Carla Raffaella
PINTON, Paolo
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/11392/2481326
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