Plague is an infectious disease that has affected humanity from the Neolithic until the present days and has shaped the history of the humankind on many occasions in the past. Plague is not only a disease of the past; it is still present today in some parts of the world, and kills many people every year. It is therefore important to keep studying it as the analysis of the past epidemics can give us information about the pathogenicity, the selectivity and the transmission mode of this re-emerging and important infectious disease. There are many questions on how plague affected the populations of the past: did it kill indiscriminately as historical record assume? There are discordant opinions on the matter: some researchers suggested that Y. pestis selected its victims between the frailest and weak individuals; others contrarily proposed that between the victims of plague, there are healthier individuals than in an attritional cemetery. Both anthropological and paleodemographical studies have not been able to draw a clear and shared picture of the situation until now. The present research attempted to provide some answers to this question, whether plague selected or not its victims. The thesis was organised into seven chapters, reporting on five studies. The 1st chapter provides an introduction about state of the art on the plague mortality debate, along with all the possible discriminant variables that can influence it: sex, age and frailty, as well as the role of iron in infectious diseases. In the 2nd chapter, we reviewed all published anthropological studies on plague victims, that yielded data on sex, age and health status of individuals. With the collected data, we attempted to discern if any selection pattern by plague was detectable. In the 3rd chapter, we propose newly developed guidelines for the analysis of porotic lesions of the skull and the orbits. These lesions are generally considered a symptom of anaemia in human skeletal remains. The 4th chapter reports about a newly developed index of frailty for the analysis of human skeletal remains. Frailty is the biological stress load an individual had accumulated during life, and it can cause more susceptibility to infections. Frailty is assessed in human skeletal remains trough the analysis of the biomarkers of physiological stress left on bones and teeth. The new index considers for the first time not only the severity and healing of the lesions but assigns a weight to each biomarker and can be used on incomplete skeletal remains. In the 5th chapter, we used the new index of frailty and the guidelines for the collection of porous lesions, to analyse two samples, one of plague victims and one of non-plague victims from the same region of Italy and the same century (17th c.), to investigate whether plague made a selection based on their frailty. We noticed some differences in how plague selected men and women. In the 6th chapter we further investigated this possible difference in mortality for plague through the analysis of some paleoepidemiological data in medical records from 1813-1945 in different parts of the world. The medical reports provided us with data about contagion and the recovering from plague, information that skeletons cannot provide. We noticed some interesting and significant differences in susceptibility to infection and, more importantly, in rates of mortality and recovering from bubonic plague. Finally, in the last chapter, we detailed the conclusions and answers we were able to draw, and we proposed further research ideas for the future. In conclusion, this thesis not only contributes with new methods to analyse and determine frailty in human skeletal remains, as well as with new guidelines on the analysis of the porotic lesions of the cranium but answers some of the questions regarding plague mortality, providing sounding hypothesis on the mechanism regulating susceptibility and mortality.

La peste è una malattia infettiva che, a partire dal Neolitico, ha contribuito a plasmare la storia dell'umanità molte volte in passato. La peste è endemica ancora oggi in alcune parti del mondo e uccide molte persone ogni anno. È quindi importante continuare a studiarla perché l'analisi delle epidemie del passato può darci informazioni sulla patogenicità, la selettività e le modalità di trasmissione di questa riemergente e importante malattia infettiva. Ci sono molte domande aperte su come la peste abbia colpito le popolazioni del passato: uccideva indiscriminatamente, come ipotizzano i dati storici? Ci sono opinioni discordanti sull'argomento: alcuni ricercatori hanno suggerito che Y. pestis ha selezionato le sue vittime tra gli individui più fragili e deboli della popolazione; altri hanno proposto che tra le vittime della peste ci fossero individui più sani rispetto a quelli in un cimitero non di peste. Sia gli studi antropologici che quelli paleodemografici non sono stati finora in grado di tracciare un quadro chiaro e condiviso della situazione. La presente ricerca ha cercato di fornire alcune risposte a questa domanda, se la peste abbia o meno selezionato le sue vittime. La tesi è stata organizzata in sette capitoli, e raccoglie cinque studi originali. Il 1° capitolo fornisce uno stato dell’arte sul dibattito esistente riguardante la mortalità della peste, insieme a tutte le possibili variabili che possono influenzarla: sesso, età e fragilità; così come il ruolo del ferro nelle malattie infettive. Nel 2° capitolo, abbiamo revisionato tutti gli studi antropologici che fornissero i dati sul sesso, l'età e lo stato di salute dei resti scheletrici delle vittime di peste. Analizzando statisticamente i dati raccolti abbiamo cercato di individuare una qualsiasi influenza sulla peste da parte di queste variabili. Nel 3° capitolo abbiamo sviluppato nuove linee guida per l'analisi delle lesioni porotiche del cranio e delle orbite. Nei resti scheletrici umani queste lesioni sono generalmente considerate segni d’anemia. Nel 4° capitolo si propone un nuovo indice di fragilità per l'analisi dei resti scheletrici umani. La fragilità è il carico di stress biologico che un individuo ha sostenuto in vita e porta ad una maggiore suscettibilità alle infezioni. La fragilità sui resti scheletrici si valuta attraverso i biomarcatori, i segni lasciati dallo stress fisiologico sulle ossa e sui denti. Il nuovo indice, per la prima volta, considera la gravità e la guarigione delle lesioni, assegna un peso a ciascun biomarcatore e può essere utilizzato anche su resti non completi. Nel 5° capitolo, utilizzando il nuovo indice e le nuove linee guida per lo studio delle lesioni porotiche, si analizza un campione di vittime di peste e uno di vittime non di peste della stessa regione e dello stesso secolo (17° secolo). Lo scopo era confrontare i campioni per evidenziare una possibile selezione della peste in base alla fragilità pregressa degli individui. Abbiamo notato alcune differenze nel modo in cui la peste ha selezionato uomini e donne. Abbiamo ulteriormente indagato questa differenza nella mortalità per peste, attraverso l'analisi di dati paleoepidemiologici da report medici, riguardanti le epidemie di peste bubbonica tra il 1813 e il 1945 in diverse parti del mondo. I report medici ci danno informazioni sul contagio e sulla guarigione dalla peste che gli scheletri non possono fornirci. Infine, nell'ultimo capitolo, si riportano le conclusioni e ulteriori idee di ricerca. Questa tesi non solo contribuisce con nuovi metodi di analisi della fragilità dei resti scheletrici umani, e con nuove linee guida sull'analisi delle lesioni porotiche del cranio, ma risponde ad alcune delle domande sulla peste, fornendo ipotesi fondate sul meccanismo che ne regola suscettibilità e mortalità.

New Perspectives on the Selectivity of Plague: Paleoepidemiological Analyses on Frailty, Age and Sex of Plague Victims

ZEDDA, Nicoletta
2020

Abstract

Plague is an infectious disease that has affected humanity from the Neolithic until the present days and has shaped the history of the humankind on many occasions in the past. Plague is not only a disease of the past; it is still present today in some parts of the world, and kills many people every year. It is therefore important to keep studying it as the analysis of the past epidemics can give us information about the pathogenicity, the selectivity and the transmission mode of this re-emerging and important infectious disease. There are many questions on how plague affected the populations of the past: did it kill indiscriminately as historical record assume? There are discordant opinions on the matter: some researchers suggested that Y. pestis selected its victims between the frailest and weak individuals; others contrarily proposed that between the victims of plague, there are healthier individuals than in an attritional cemetery. Both anthropological and paleodemographical studies have not been able to draw a clear and shared picture of the situation until now. The present research attempted to provide some answers to this question, whether plague selected or not its victims. The thesis was organised into seven chapters, reporting on five studies. The 1st chapter provides an introduction about state of the art on the plague mortality debate, along with all the possible discriminant variables that can influence it: sex, age and frailty, as well as the role of iron in infectious diseases. In the 2nd chapter, we reviewed all published anthropological studies on plague victims, that yielded data on sex, age and health status of individuals. With the collected data, we attempted to discern if any selection pattern by plague was detectable. In the 3rd chapter, we propose newly developed guidelines for the analysis of porotic lesions of the skull and the orbits. These lesions are generally considered a symptom of anaemia in human skeletal remains. The 4th chapter reports about a newly developed index of frailty for the analysis of human skeletal remains. Frailty is the biological stress load an individual had accumulated during life, and it can cause more susceptibility to infections. Frailty is assessed in human skeletal remains trough the analysis of the biomarkers of physiological stress left on bones and teeth. The new index considers for the first time not only the severity and healing of the lesions but assigns a weight to each biomarker and can be used on incomplete skeletal remains. In the 5th chapter, we used the new index of frailty and the guidelines for the collection of porous lesions, to analyse two samples, one of plague victims and one of non-plague victims from the same region of Italy and the same century (17th c.), to investigate whether plague made a selection based on their frailty. We noticed some differences in how plague selected men and women. In the 6th chapter we further investigated this possible difference in mortality for plague through the analysis of some paleoepidemiological data in medical records from 1813-1945 in different parts of the world. The medical reports provided us with data about contagion and the recovering from plague, information that skeletons cannot provide. We noticed some interesting and significant differences in susceptibility to infection and, more importantly, in rates of mortality and recovering from bubonic plague. Finally, in the last chapter, we detailed the conclusions and answers we were able to draw, and we proposed further research ideas for the future. In conclusion, this thesis not only contributes with new methods to analyse and determine frailty in human skeletal remains, as well as with new guidelines on the analysis of the porotic lesions of the cranium but answers some of the questions regarding plague mortality, providing sounding hypothesis on the mechanism regulating susceptibility and mortality.
BRAMANTI, Barbara
RINALDO, Natascia
PINTON, Paolo
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Descrizione: PhD dissertation- Nicoletta Zedda
Tipologia: Tesi di dottorato
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/11392/2478833
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