Acute and chronic alveolar and/or bronchial inflammation is thought to be central to the pathogenesis of many lung disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [1]. Asthma is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterise by variable and recurring symptoms, such as reversible airflow obstruction and bronchospasm [2]. COPD is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide [3, 4] , characterised by chronic inflammation, airflow limitation, hyper mucous production, emphysema, bronchoconstriction, a decline of respiratory activity and eventual death. Pharmacotherapy for asthma and COPD could have different target and also different types of drugs and administration routes. There is no cure for restore the normal lungs function because the treatments can help slow the progression of the condition and reduce the symptoms [5]. In literature is show that inflammation and oxidation are the principle markers in the pathogenesis of these disease [6]. Moreover previous studies have shown that oxidative stress play an important role in the pathogenesis of the inflammatory lungs diseases, because is implicated in the pathogenesis and in irreversible airway inflammation by release of inflammatory mediators. Consequently, the identification of various anti-oxidant agents such as polyphenols (quercetin and resveratrol) have made it possible to modulate various biochemical aspects of inflammatory lungs diseases such as COPD and asthma. However, these molecules have a very low solubility in water, chemical stability, rapid metabolization and consequently they exhibit low bioavailability [7]. To overcome these problems and enhance the beneficial properties of quercetin and resveratrol, multiparticulate forms, have been developed in the course of this thesis, specifically inhalation powder using intelligent drug carriers and site-specific delivery in order to protect and enhance the bioavailability of the studied polyphenols. The experimental work was divided in three section, as listed below: I. SECTION A: Inhalable dry powder based on quercetin-loaded lipid microparticles for pulmonary delivery II. SECTION B: Inhalable resveratrol spray dried formulation to improve the treatment of chronic inflammatory lung diseases III. SECTION C: In vitro activities of co-spray dried resveratrol and budesonide inhalation formulations in alveolar macrophages I. SECTION A Quercetin has been shown to have several beneficial pharmacological properties against different diseases due its ant-oxidant activity and specifically to pulmonary pathologies, published in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that this flavonoid had a good properties as potential compound that could be potentially useful for asthma treatment [8, 9]. However, the therapeutic application of quercetin is hampered by its low bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism, poor cell permeability and high chemical instability in physiological fluids [8, 10, 11]. For this reason, the encapsulation of quercetin into micro- and nano-particles has been reported [9, 12]. Specifically, solid lipid microparticles (SLM) represent a suitable carrier to delivery the flavonoid directly to the lung thereby increasing its concentration at the site of action [13]. In this study quercetin-loaded lipid microparticles for pulmonary delivery as a dry powder. The morphology and physico-chemical characterization of the SLM coupled with the entrapment efficiency of quercetin in SLM were evaluated. Moreover, the effect of the flavonoid-loaded SLM on the uptake in A549 lung alveolar epithelial cells were examine. A melt emulsification technique was employed to prepare the quercetin loaded SLM and the components that achieved the more suitable condition for SLM preparation were tristearin and phosphatidylcholine , as lipid and emulsifier, respectively. The quercetin content of the microparticles and the encapsulation efficiency were 11.8 ± 0.3% (w/w) and 72.4%, respectively. In order to charactherise the microparticles in term of both, morphology and release, different studies were performed. Preliminary analysis of the microparticles by optical and scanning electron microscopy indicated a particles size and morphology to be delivery to the lungs. The flavonoid release profiles show that the SLM produced a quercetin release significantly lower than the dissolution of the pure flavonoid drug. This indicated that quercetin was encapsulated in the lipid matrix, the diffusion through this matrix producing an efficient modulation of quercetin release. In order to investigate if the SLM are able to influence the in vitro activity of quercetin, alveolar epithelial cells A549 were selected for the study and the uptake of free and microencapsulated quercetin by lung alveolar A549 cells was investigated. Data obtained show that after 4-h incubation, the accumulation of quercetin in the A549 cells was significantly higher for the microparticles entrapped flavonoid when compare to non-encapsulated quercetin. The enhanced intracellular delivery of quercetin achieved by the SLM is likely due to the flavonoid stabilization after encapsulation. In conclusion the data obtained in this study suggest that SLM could represents a promising system for inhalation delivery of quercetin as a new potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of airways inflammatory diseases. II: SECTION B: Resveratrol, is a natural polyphenolic compound, synthesized in a large number of plant species that exhibits several beneficial effects, including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative action [14, 15]. The delivery of resveratrol as solution is not suitable due to its instability, propensity for rapid oxidative degradation in water and to its low solubility in water [16], for this reason the dry powder could be a suitable formulation to delivery the polyphenol directly to the lungs. The aim of the study was to prepare inhalable resveratrol by spray drying for the treatment of COPD. Specifically was investigated the potential of resveratrol as dry powder for inhalation and its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity in Calu-3 bronchial cell lines. The inhalable microparticles were produced using the spray drying technique. The physicochemical characteristics of spray dried resveratrol formulation were investigated and the aerosol performance evaluated using andersen cascade impactor (ACI). After that, the deposition, transport and cell uptake of spray dried resveratrol were investigated using the Calu-3 cell line incorporated onto a modified ACI. Finally, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of resveratrol on Calu-3cell were studied. Resveratrol, with a spherical morphology and particle diameter less than 5 μm, was successfully manufactured. Fine particle fraction (FPF) and mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of spray-dried resveratrol was 39.9 ± 1.1% and 3.7 ± 0.1 μm, respectively when assessed with an ACI at 60 l/min. The cytotoxicity results of spray-dried resveratrol on Calu-3 revealed that the cells could tolerate high concentration of resveratrol (up to 160 μM). In addition, in transport experiments using Snapwells, it was observed that more than 80% of the deposited dry powder was transported across the Calu-3 cells to the basal chamber within four hours. The expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) from Calu-3 induced with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were significantly reduced after treatment with spray-dried resveratrol. The antioxidant assay (radical scavenging activity and nitric oxide production) showed spray dried resveratrol to possess an antioxidant activity on Calu-3 cells. Hence, resveratrol could be of high therapeutic value in diseases like asthma and COPD where inflammation and oxidation is present and the spray dried formulation could be an appropriate formulation to delivery this polyphenol directly to the lungs. In conclusion, the results presented in this investigation suggested that resveratrol could potentially be developed as a dry powder for inhalation for the treatment of inflammatory lung diseases like COPD. III. SECTION C: Current pharmacotherapy of COPD is symptomatic and includes the use of inhaled antiinflammatory agents, such as corticosteroids (e.g. budesonide). Corticosteroid molecules are able to suppress the release of these inflammatory mediators in alveolar macrophages but these drugs are relatively ineffective in COPD patients due to the inhibition of the histone deacetylases (HDAC2) activities [17]. The increase in patients developing resistance to corticosteroids therapies coupled with the ineffective cure to stop COPD progression signals for alternative therapeutic approaches [18]. Systemic inflammation and oxidative stress are the central hallmark for the pathogenesis of COPD; and therefore are often the molecular targets in therapy [19]. A combination therapy containing anti-oxidant compound and antiinflammatory molecule could be explored as novel approach to target the key mediators in COPD pathogenesis. This study aims to prepare and characterise inhalable co-spray dried microparticles containing resveratrol and budesonide. Different series of co-spray dried formulations were prepared and the physico-chemical characteristics and in vitro aerosol performance were investigated. The biological responses of alveolar macrophages cell lines in terms of cell viability, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities were evaluated with the prepared spray dried formulations. The co-spray dried microparticles of all formulations exhibited morphologies appropriate for inhalation administration. Analysis of the deposition profiles showed an increase in aerosol performance proportional to budeosonide concentration. Cell viability assay demonstrated that alveolar macrophages could tolerate a wide range of resveratrol and budesonide concentrations. In addition, resveratrol and budesonide were able to decrease the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS induced alveolar macrophages. The inhibitory effect of spray dried formulations on NO production was investigated using LPS-induced alveolar macrophage cells with the results demonstrated that the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) was dosedependent, irrespective to the drugs used. Interestingly, the reduction of NO was more pronounced when resveratrol and budesonide were used in combination. This study has successfully established the manufacture of co-spray dried formulations of resveratrol and budesonide with morphology and aerosol properties suitable for inhalation drug delivery, negligible in vitro toxicity and enhanced efficacy to control inflammation and oxidative stress in LPS-induced alveolar macrophages.

L’infiammazione acuta e cronica di alveoli e/o bronchi sta alla base della patogenesi e dello sviluppo di malattie infiammatorie croniche polmonari come asma e broncopneumopatia cronico ostruttiva (BPCO) [1]. L’asma è una malattia infiammatoria caratterizzata da un’ostruzione generalmente reversibile, ma a volte irreversibile, delle vie aeree inferiori, caratterizzata da una sintomatologia variabile e ricorrente, come ostruzione delle vie aeree e broncospasmo [2]. La BPCO è una delle principali cause di morbilità e mortalità in tutto il mondo [3, 4], ed è caratterizzata da infiammazione cronica, dalla limitazione del flusso aereo, da ipersecrezione di muco, enfisema e broncocostrizione che portano ad una diminuzione dell’attività respiratoria fino alla morte. La terapia farmacologica per il trattamento di queste patologie ha diversi target farmacologici, diversi tipi di farmaci e vie di somministrazione. Ad oggi, non esiste una terapia in grado di ripristinare le normali funzioni polmonari, poiché tutti i trattamenti farmacologici mirano a rallentare la progressione di queste malattie e a ridurne i sintomi [5]. L’infiammazione e lo stress ossidativo stanno alla base della patogenesi di queste malattie [6]. Infatti, studi precedenti hanno dimostrato come lo stress ossidativo svolga un ruolo importante nella patogenesi di malattie polmonari in quanto causa un’ infiammazione irreversibile delle vie aeree attraverso il rilascio di mediatori dell’infiammazione. Di conseguenza, l'identificazione di composti ad attività antiossidante e anti-infiammatoria, quali i polifenoli (quercetina e resveratrolo), può essere una via terapeutica vantaggiosa in quanto queste molecole riescono a modulare vari aspetti biochimici delle malattie infiammatorie croniche polmonari. I polifenoli, presentano numerose attività benefiche, ma ad oggi il loro utilizzo risulta essere limitato dalla loro bassa biodisponibilità a causa della loro scarsa solubilità in acqua, rapida metabolizzazione e instabilità chimica [7]. Per questi motivi, la mia attività di ricerca si è focalizzata sullo sviluppo di sistemi microparticellari da somministrare per via inalatoria al fine di avere una consegna sito-specifica a livello polmonare, migliorando così la biodisponibilità dei polifenoli studiati. Il lavoro sperimentale è stato diviso in tre sezioni: I. SEZIONE A: Inhalable dry powder based on quercetin-loaded lipid microparticles for pulmonary delivery; II. SEZIONE B: Inhalable resveratrol spray dried formulation to improve the treatment of chronic inflammatory lung diseases; III. SEZIONE C: In vitro activities of co-spray dried resveratrol and budesonide inhalable formulations in alveolar macrophages. I. SEZIONE A La quercetina, è una molecola appartenente ai polifenoli, che grazie alla sua attività anti-ossidante e anti-infiammatoria presenta diverse attività farmacologiche rispetto a diverse malattie. Specificamente per le malattie polmonari, studi in vitro e in vivo dimostrano come questo flavonoide presenta delle proprietà favorevoli per il trattamento dell’asma [8, 9]. Nonostante le sue attività siano favorevoli rispetto a diverse patologie, il suo utilizzo risulta essere limitato dal rapido metabolismo, scarsa permeazione cellulare e dalla sua instabilità nei fluidi biologici [8, 10, 11]. Per questo motivo, in diversi studi è riportata l’incapsulazione della quercetina in sistemi micro- e nanoparticelle [9, 12]. Le microparticelle lipidiche (LM) rappresentano un ottimo sistema di per veicolare la quercetina direttamente a livello polmonare, avendo così un aumento della sua concentrazione nel sito di azione [13]. In questo studio la quercetina è stata incapsulata all’interno delle ML, ottenendo così una formulazione di polvere secca da somministrare per via inalatoria. Le ML ottenute sono state caratterizzate sia da un punto di vista morfologico che come caratteristiche chimico-fisiche, ed inoltre è stata valutata l’efficienza di incapsulazione del flavonoide nella matrice lipidica. Con lo scopo di valutare l’effetto delle ML sull’attività in vitro della quercetina sono stati condotti studi in vitro utilizzando linee cellulari epiteliali alveolari A549 per valutare la permeazione del flavonoide. Le ML sono state ottenute mediante la tecnica della fusione-emulsione ed i componenti che hanno permesso di ottenere le condizioni migliori sono state la tristearina come lipide e fosfatidilcolina come tensioattivo. Il contenuto di quercetina nelle ML e l’efficienza di incapsulazione sono stati di 11.8 ± 0.3% (p/p) e 72,4 % rispettivamente. Informazioni riguardo morfologia e dimensioni delle ML sono state ottenute da osservazioni al microscopio ottico e con la microscopia a scansione elettronica (SEM), le cui immagini hanno mostrato morfologia sferica delle ML con dimensioni adatte alla somministrazione a livello polmonare. Dagli studi di rilascio si evince che la quercetina è stata incapsulata all’interno della matrice lipidica in quanto la cinetica di rilascio della quercetina incapsulata è inferiore rispetto alla velocità di dissoluzione della quercetina libera. Per valutare l’effetto delle microparticelle su linee cellulari sono state utilizzate le cellule epiteliali alveolari A549. I risultati ottenuti mostrano che dopo 4h di incubazione il quantitativo di quercetina nelle cellule A549 è stato significativamente maggiore rispetto al flavonoide non incapsulato. L’ aumento del quantitativo di quercetina permeata è dovuto al fatto che le ML impediscono la metabolizzazione del flavonoide e che quindi modulandone il rilascio nel tempo ne permettono l’assorbimento a livello cellulare. In conclusione, i risultati ottenuti mostrano come le ML rappresentano un buon sistema di veicolazione della quercetina a livello polmonare come nuovo approccio terapeutico per il trattamento di malattie infiammatorie delle vie aeree. II: SECTION B: Il resveratrolo, è un composto polifenolico di origine naturale che viene prodotto da diverse specie di piante e che presenta diverse attività benefiche, tra cui le attività anti-infiammatoria e antiossidante [14, 15]. La formulazione del resveratrolo come polvere secca rappresenta una buona via per veicolarlo a livello polmonare, in quanto l’utilizzo di questo polifenolo in soluzione non è possibile data la sua instabilità, la sua rapida degradazione per ossidazione e la sua scarsa solubilità in acqua [16]. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è stato quello di formulare il resveratrolo in una formulazione di polvere secca da somministrare per via inalatoria per il trattamento della BPCO utilizzando la tecnica dello spray drying. Nello specifico è stata valutata l’efficacia del resveratrolo come inalabile polvere secca (spray dried resveratrolo) e la sua attività anti-infiammatoria e anti-ossidante nelle linee cellulari bronchiali Calu-3. Sono state valutate le caratteristiche morfologiche e chimico fisiche della formulazione. L’ efficienza di aerosolizzazione è stata determinata utilizzando l’Andersen Cascade Impactor (ACI). Successivamente sono stati valutati la deposizione, il trasporto e l’uptake cellulare dello spray dried resveratrolo utilizzando le linee cellulari Calu-3 inserite in un ACI modificato. Infine è stata valutata l’attività anti-ossidante e anti-infiammatoria del resveratrolo nelle cellule Calu-3. I risultati ottenuti mostrano come le particelle ottenute con lo spray drying hanno morfologia sferica e diametro inferiore a 5 μm. La frazione di particelle fini (FPF) e il diametro aerodinamico mediano di massa (MMAD) della formulazione spray dried sono stati di 39.9 ± 1.1% e 3.7 ± 0.1 μm, rispettivamente, utilizzando l’ACI a 60 l/min. Gli studi in vitro indicano che il resveratrolo non causa effetti tossici significativi nelle cellule Calu-3 anche ad alte concentrazioni (fino a 160 μM). Dagli studi di trasporto si è visto come l’80% del resveratrolo è in grado di permeare le Calu-3 dopo 4h dalla deposizione della polvere sulle cellule. Lo spray dried resveratrolo presenta attività antiinfiammatoria nei confronti delle cellule Calu-3 in quanto l’espressione di interleuchina-8 (IL-8) è stata significativamente ridotta dopo aver favorito l’infiammazione cellulare con il fattore di necrosi tumorale alpha (TNF-α), fattore di crescita trasformante beta-1 (TGF-β1) e il lipopolisaccaride (LPS). Infine lo spray dried resveratrolo ha mostrato di possedere attività anti-ossidante sulle cellule Calu-3. Questi dati mostrano come il resveratrolo presenti delle attività terapeutiche per le malattie polmonari, come asma e BPCO e che la formulazione spray dried rappresenta un ottimo sistema per veicolare il resveratrolo direttamente a livello polmonare. In conclusione , i risultati dimostrano come il resveratrolo può essere formulato come polvere secca da somministrare per via inalatoria nel trattamento di malattie infiammatorie croniche polmonari, come la BPCO. III.SECTION C: Il trattamento farmacologico per la BPCO è sintomatico e include l’utilizzo farmaci corticosteroidi da somministrare per via inalatoria (es. budesonide). I corticosteroidi sono molecole che sono in grado di diminuire il rilascio di mediatori dell’infiammazione a livello dei macrofagi alveolari, ma questa loro attività diminuisce in pazienti con BPCO in quanto viene inibita l’attività dell’istone deacetilasi (HDAC2) [17]. C’è il bisogno di un nuovo approccio terapeutico per la BPCO in quanto vi è un aumento della resistenza ai corticosteroidi nei pazienti con BPCO ed inoltre perché il trattamento farmacologico non è in grado di bloccare questa patologia [18]. L’infiammazione sistemica e lo stress ossidativo sono gli elementi centrali che stanno alla base della BPCO ed inoltre sono i bersagli terapeutici [19]. La combinazione di una composto ad attività anti-ossidante con uno ad attività antiinfiammatoria può essere investigato come nuovo approccio terapeutico per la BPCO. Questo studio ha avuto come scopo quello di preparare e caratterizzare una inalabile formulazione, co-spray dried contenente resveratrolo e budesonide. Sono state prodotte diverse formulazioni che sono state caratterizzate da un punto di vista chimico-fisico e ne sono state valutate le proprietà aerosolizzanti. L’attività biologica è stata studiata utilizzando linee cellulari di macrofagi alveolari, nello specifico è stata valutata la citotossicità, l’attività anti-infiammatoria e anti-ossidante delle diverse formulazioni preparate. Tutte le co-spray dried formulazioni contenenti resveratrolo e budesonide hanno mostrato morfologia e dimensioni appropriate per la somministrazione polmonare. L’analisi dei dati di efficienza di aerosolizzazione hanno mostrato un aumento di capacità di proprietà aerosolizzanti proporzionale alla concentrazione della budesonide. I macrofagi alveolari hanno mostrato di tollerare resveratrolo e budesonide nel range di concentrazioni investigato. Inoltre, resveratrolo e budesonide, presentano attività anti-infiammatoria nei macrofagi dopo aver indotto l’infiammazione con LPS perché in grado di diminuire e livelli di TNF-α e interleuchina-6. La capacità anti ossidante delle formulazioni è stata misurata come la loro capacità di ridurre il quantitativo di ossido nitrico nei macrofagi alveolari stimolati con LPS. I risultati ottenuti mostrano un’attività anti-ossidante che è concentrazione dipendente per i singoli composti, ma la riduzione è stata maggiore quando resveratrolo e budesonide sono stati utilizzati in combinazione. In conclusione, in questo studio sono state prodotte delle formulazioni co-spray dried di resveratrolo e budesonide che presentano morfologia e proprietà aerosolizzanti appropriate per la loro somministrazione per via inalatoria. Queste formulazione non hanno effetti tossici significativi nei macrofagi alveolari ed inoltre presentano attività anti-infiammatoria e anti-ossidante dopo aver indotto l’infiammazione cellulare con LPS.

Inhalable lipid microparticle and spray dried formulations based on polyphenolic compounds

TROTTA, VALENTINA
2016

Abstract

Acute and chronic alveolar and/or bronchial inflammation is thought to be central to the pathogenesis of many lung disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [1]. Asthma is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterise by variable and recurring symptoms, such as reversible airflow obstruction and bronchospasm [2]. COPD is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide [3, 4] , characterised by chronic inflammation, airflow limitation, hyper mucous production, emphysema, bronchoconstriction, a decline of respiratory activity and eventual death. Pharmacotherapy for asthma and COPD could have different target and also different types of drugs and administration routes. There is no cure for restore the normal lungs function because the treatments can help slow the progression of the condition and reduce the symptoms [5]. In literature is show that inflammation and oxidation are the principle markers in the pathogenesis of these disease [6]. Moreover previous studies have shown that oxidative stress play an important role in the pathogenesis of the inflammatory lungs diseases, because is implicated in the pathogenesis and in irreversible airway inflammation by release of inflammatory mediators. Consequently, the identification of various anti-oxidant agents such as polyphenols (quercetin and resveratrol) have made it possible to modulate various biochemical aspects of inflammatory lungs diseases such as COPD and asthma. However, these molecules have a very low solubility in water, chemical stability, rapid metabolization and consequently they exhibit low bioavailability [7]. To overcome these problems and enhance the beneficial properties of quercetin and resveratrol, multiparticulate forms, have been developed in the course of this thesis, specifically inhalation powder using intelligent drug carriers and site-specific delivery in order to protect and enhance the bioavailability of the studied polyphenols. The experimental work was divided in three section, as listed below: I. SECTION A: Inhalable dry powder based on quercetin-loaded lipid microparticles for pulmonary delivery II. SECTION B: Inhalable resveratrol spray dried formulation to improve the treatment of chronic inflammatory lung diseases III. SECTION C: In vitro activities of co-spray dried resveratrol and budesonide inhalation formulations in alveolar macrophages I. SECTION A Quercetin has been shown to have several beneficial pharmacological properties against different diseases due its ant-oxidant activity and specifically to pulmonary pathologies, published in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated that this flavonoid had a good properties as potential compound that could be potentially useful for asthma treatment [8, 9]. However, the therapeutic application of quercetin is hampered by its low bioavailability due to the extensive metabolism, poor cell permeability and high chemical instability in physiological fluids [8, 10, 11]. For this reason, the encapsulation of quercetin into micro- and nano-particles has been reported [9, 12]. Specifically, solid lipid microparticles (SLM) represent a suitable carrier to delivery the flavonoid directly to the lung thereby increasing its concentration at the site of action [13]. In this study quercetin-loaded lipid microparticles for pulmonary delivery as a dry powder. The morphology and physico-chemical characterization of the SLM coupled with the entrapment efficiency of quercetin in SLM were evaluated. Moreover, the effect of the flavonoid-loaded SLM on the uptake in A549 lung alveolar epithelial cells were examine. A melt emulsification technique was employed to prepare the quercetin loaded SLM and the components that achieved the more suitable condition for SLM preparation were tristearin and phosphatidylcholine , as lipid and emulsifier, respectively. The quercetin content of the microparticles and the encapsulation efficiency were 11.8 ± 0.3% (w/w) and 72.4%, respectively. In order to charactherise the microparticles in term of both, morphology and release, different studies were performed. Preliminary analysis of the microparticles by optical and scanning electron microscopy indicated a particles size and morphology to be delivery to the lungs. The flavonoid release profiles show that the SLM produced a quercetin release significantly lower than the dissolution of the pure flavonoid drug. This indicated that quercetin was encapsulated in the lipid matrix, the diffusion through this matrix producing an efficient modulation of quercetin release. In order to investigate if the SLM are able to influence the in vitro activity of quercetin, alveolar epithelial cells A549 were selected for the study and the uptake of free and microencapsulated quercetin by lung alveolar A549 cells was investigated. Data obtained show that after 4-h incubation, the accumulation of quercetin in the A549 cells was significantly higher for the microparticles entrapped flavonoid when compare to non-encapsulated quercetin. The enhanced intracellular delivery of quercetin achieved by the SLM is likely due to the flavonoid stabilization after encapsulation. In conclusion the data obtained in this study suggest that SLM could represents a promising system for inhalation delivery of quercetin as a new potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of airways inflammatory diseases. II: SECTION B: Resveratrol, is a natural polyphenolic compound, synthesized in a large number of plant species that exhibits several beneficial effects, including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative action [14, 15]. The delivery of resveratrol as solution is not suitable due to its instability, propensity for rapid oxidative degradation in water and to its low solubility in water [16], for this reason the dry powder could be a suitable formulation to delivery the polyphenol directly to the lungs. The aim of the study was to prepare inhalable resveratrol by spray drying for the treatment of COPD. Specifically was investigated the potential of resveratrol as dry powder for inhalation and its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activity in Calu-3 bronchial cell lines. The inhalable microparticles were produced using the spray drying technique. The physicochemical characteristics of spray dried resveratrol formulation were investigated and the aerosol performance evaluated using andersen cascade impactor (ACI). After that, the deposition, transport and cell uptake of spray dried resveratrol were investigated using the Calu-3 cell line incorporated onto a modified ACI. Finally, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of resveratrol on Calu-3cell were studied. Resveratrol, with a spherical morphology and particle diameter less than 5 μm, was successfully manufactured. Fine particle fraction (FPF) and mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of spray-dried resveratrol was 39.9 ± 1.1% and 3.7 ± 0.1 μm, respectively when assessed with an ACI at 60 l/min. The cytotoxicity results of spray-dried resveratrol on Calu-3 revealed that the cells could tolerate high concentration of resveratrol (up to 160 μM). In addition, in transport experiments using Snapwells, it was observed that more than 80% of the deposited dry powder was transported across the Calu-3 cells to the basal chamber within four hours. The expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) from Calu-3 induced with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were significantly reduced after treatment with spray-dried resveratrol. The antioxidant assay (radical scavenging activity and nitric oxide production) showed spray dried resveratrol to possess an antioxidant activity on Calu-3 cells. Hence, resveratrol could be of high therapeutic value in diseases like asthma and COPD where inflammation and oxidation is present and the spray dried formulation could be an appropriate formulation to delivery this polyphenol directly to the lungs. In conclusion, the results presented in this investigation suggested that resveratrol could potentially be developed as a dry powder for inhalation for the treatment of inflammatory lung diseases like COPD. III. SECTION C: Current pharmacotherapy of COPD is symptomatic and includes the use of inhaled antiinflammatory agents, such as corticosteroids (e.g. budesonide). Corticosteroid molecules are able to suppress the release of these inflammatory mediators in alveolar macrophages but these drugs are relatively ineffective in COPD patients due to the inhibition of the histone deacetylases (HDAC2) activities [17]. The increase in patients developing resistance to corticosteroids therapies coupled with the ineffective cure to stop COPD progression signals for alternative therapeutic approaches [18]. Systemic inflammation and oxidative stress are the central hallmark for the pathogenesis of COPD; and therefore are often the molecular targets in therapy [19]. A combination therapy containing anti-oxidant compound and antiinflammatory molecule could be explored as novel approach to target the key mediators in COPD pathogenesis. This study aims to prepare and characterise inhalable co-spray dried microparticles containing resveratrol and budesonide. Different series of co-spray dried formulations were prepared and the physico-chemical characteristics and in vitro aerosol performance were investigated. The biological responses of alveolar macrophages cell lines in terms of cell viability, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities were evaluated with the prepared spray dried formulations. The co-spray dried microparticles of all formulations exhibited morphologies appropriate for inhalation administration. Analysis of the deposition profiles showed an increase in aerosol performance proportional to budeosonide concentration. Cell viability assay demonstrated that alveolar macrophages could tolerate a wide range of resveratrol and budesonide concentrations. In addition, resveratrol and budesonide were able to decrease the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS induced alveolar macrophages. The inhibitory effect of spray dried formulations on NO production was investigated using LPS-induced alveolar macrophage cells with the results demonstrated that the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) was dosedependent, irrespective to the drugs used. Interestingly, the reduction of NO was more pronounced when resveratrol and budesonide were used in combination. This study has successfully established the manufacture of co-spray dried formulations of resveratrol and budesonide with morphology and aerosol properties suitable for inhalation drug delivery, negligible in vitro toxicity and enhanced efficacy to control inflammation and oxidative stress in LPS-induced alveolar macrophages.
SCALIA, Santo
TRAINI, Daniela
MANFREDINI, Stefano
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