Il presente lavoro di dottorato è focalizzato sullo studio della composizione chimica del particolato atmosferico (PM), in quanto matrice ambientale comunemente collegata sia a problemi di salute umana che a fenomeni legati al cambiamento climatico. Alla luce di ciò, si sta verificando un crescente interesse dell’opinione pubblica e delle autorità sulle proprietà e l’origine del PM, in particolare, sta diventando sempre più importante riuscire a individuare le fonti dirette di immissione di aerosol o di sostanze che possono portare alla formazione di PM in atmosfera. Si tratta di informazioni fondamentali da fornire alle autorità competenti in modo da basare le future politiche ambientali e di tutela della salute al fine di minimizzare gli effetti dell’inquinamento atmosferico, soprattutto in una zona come la pianura padana che, a livello europeo, è riconosciuta come una delle aree con la peggiore qualità dell’aria. Informazioni su sorgenti e processi a cui il PM è sottoposto in atmosfera possono essere dedotte dalla sua composizione chimica. Lo studio della composizione è una sfida particolarmente complessa per la chimica analitica, in quanto il particolato è formato da migliaia di sostanze, sia organiche che inorganiche, per cui a tutt’oggi non è stata ancora realizzata una totale speciazione. Proprio per questo, i moderni approcci non tendono a caratterizzare tutte le sostanze presenti ma ad individuare e limitare l’indagine a specifici componenti detti marker, ossia molecole caratteristiche per distinguere tra fonti biogeniche e antropogeniche e che danno indicazioni riguardo il livello di trasformazione subito in atmosfera dai composti dal momento della loro emissione da sorgenti primarie (SOA: Secondary Organic Aerosol). Il presente studio si è concentrato principalmente sull’analisi della frazione organica polare del PM in quanto in grado di fornire importanti informazioni. I marker considerati appartengono a tre classi chimiche comunemente presenti nell’aerosol atmosferico: acidi carbossilici a basso peso molecolare, zuccheri e fenoli. Una parte consistente di questa tesi è stata dedicata allo sviluppo di un metodo analitico multiresiduo in modo da poter essere applicato nel monitoraggio ambientale al fine di ottenere il massimo numero di informazioni sulla composizione chimica. Gli analiti considerati sono generalmente presenti in basse quantità in atmosfera e, pur essendo la tecnica GC/MS molto sensibile, spesso risultano essere sotto il limite di rilevabilità del metodo. Per questo, al fine di incrementare ulteriormente la sensibilità analitica, è stata messa a punto una tecnica di acquisizione del segnale cromatografico in modalità massa tandem sfruttando le potenzialità del rivelatore con cui è equipaggiato lo strumento a disposizione, ossia la trappola ionica. I parametri operativi sono quindi stati investigati in maniera da scegliere l’energia di seconda frammentazione, lo ione precursore e gli ioni figli ottimali. I risultati ottenuti hanno dimostrato come l’acquisizione del segnale in modalità MSMS diminuisca drasticamente i segnali dovuti alle interferenze della matrice e al rumore di fondo. Questa implementazione ha fatto in modo di diminuire mediamente di sei volte il limite di rilevabilità per molte delle molecole considerate passando da 1.3-4.9 ng/m3 a 0.2-0.7 ng/m3 con conseguenti benefici nella determinazione degli analiti in esame. Si sta inoltre studiando un nuovo metodo per la reazione di derivatizzazione delle molecole polari in esame. Infatti, l’analisi di questo tipo di composti in un sistema gas cromatografico richiede preliminarmente una reazione di derivatizzazione al fine di innalzarne la volatilità, migliorando quindi il loro comportamento cromatografico. La tecnica migliore indicata spesso in letteratura e messa a punto in precedenti studi è la sililazione con N,O-bis(trimetilsilil)-trifluoroacetammide (BSTFA). Questa reazione permette di ottenere limiti di rilevabilità compatibili con le analisi ambientali eseguite ma prevede temperature e tempi di reazione relativamente elevati (70 minuti a 75°C in bagno d’acqua). Volendo migliorare le condizioni di reazione si è studiato un metodo alternativo al calore per fornire l’energia necessaria alla reazione, ossia gli ultrasuoni. I parametri della reazione di derivatizzazione che hanno effetto sulla resa sono quindi stati ottimizzati, in particolare la temperatura, il tempo di sonicazione, la quantità di BSTFA e la polarità del solvente. E’ stato utilizzato un approccio matematico/statistico per poter valutare simultaneamente l’effetto dei vari fattori con un numero ridotto di prove sperimentali. Questo ha permesso di sviluppare un metodo che presenta le stesse caratteristiche in termini di sensibilità rispetto al precedente ma che utilizza tempi di reazione, temperature e quantità di reagenti minori, portando quindi ad un miglioramento nella procedura di trattamento del campione. In aggiunta, la determinazione di alcuni zuccheri tipici marker di combustione della biomassa si sta studiando nel dettaglio. In particolare è stato eseguito un lavoro di intercomparison tra dieci laboratori in modo da valutare la comparabilità tra le diverse tecniche analitiche più comunemente utilizzate (gas cromatografia-spettrometria di massa, cromatografia liquida-spettrometria di massa, cromatografia per scambio ionico e risonanza magnetica nucleare). Lo studio ha evidenziato come nella maggior parte dei casi i risultati ottenuti siano comparabili, con le tecniche gas cromatografiche che tendono leggermente a sottostimare la quantità degli analiti considerati. L’attività principale della presente tesi è stata dedicata al monitoraggio della qualità dell’aria nella regione Emilia Romagna all’interno del progetto Supersito di ARPA. Le tecniche sviluppate sono state applicate all’analisi di filtri di PM2.5 raccolti in otto campagne di campionamento eseguite in diverse stagioni dell’anno tra il 2011 e il 2014 in due siti nella provincia di Bologna (uno urbano situato a Bologna città e uno rurale a San Pietro Capofiume, circa 30 km a nord est di Bologna). I risultati ottenuti sono stati integrati con dati relativi la frazione organica apolare (idrocarburi policiclici aromatici e alcani) e la frazione carboniosa (carbonio elementare e carbonio organico) ottenuti da altri gruppi di ricerca sempre all’interno del progetto Supersito. Le oltre 100 molecole determinate in circa un migliaio di campioni hanno fornito informazioni significative sull’apporto antropogenico al PM dovuto principalmente sia al trasporto urbano che al riscaldamento domestico in particolare durante le stagioni fredde. Sono stati inoltre studiati gli andamenti stagionali dei vari inquinanti ed è stato rilevato come le condizioni meteorologiche giochino un ruolo fondamentale sia per quanto riguarda la concentrazione di analiti in atmosfera che per quanto riguarda il loro apporto relativo. Concentrazioni molto maggiori di PM e inquinanti sono infatti state registrate nei periodi più freddi, quando la limitata altezza dello strato di rimescolamento confina le sostanze in esame nei primi centinaia di metri dell’atmosfera. Nei periodi primaverili/estivi, quando temperatura e irraggiamento solare raggiungono alti livelli, è stato invece rilevato un maggiore contributo della frazione secondaria del PM assieme ad un aumento del contributo da parte di sorgenti biogeniche. Per quanto riguarda il riscaldamento domestico, dai risultati ottenuti è emerso come la combustione di legna sia una delle principali fonti di emissione di PM e altre sostanze soprattutto nei periodi invernali, quando si verificano pesanti fenomeni di inquinamento atmosferico. Proprio per questo, una parte del lavoro è stata specificatamente dedicata all’approfondire la tematica dell’utilizzo di legna come combustibile domestico. I dati ottenuti hanno evidenziato come nei periodi più freddi dell’anno fino al 70% del PM derivi da combustione di biomassa e la quasi totalità del benzo[a]pirene sia emesso dalla stessa fonte. Il problema della combustione di biomassa risulta ancora più evidente se si considera che gli impianti di riscaldamento che utilizzano questo combustibile rappresentano soltanto una minoranza sul totale. Infine, parte del progetto di dottorato è stato dedicato allo studio del potere ossidativo (OP) del particolato in quanto vari studi hanno descritto questa proprietà come maggiormente legata agli effetti negativi del PM sulla salute umana rispetto alla sua quantità. OP è la misura della capacità del particolato di generare specie reattive all’ossigeno (ROS) che possono modificare lo stato redox a livello cellulare con conseguenti problemi al sistema respiratorio. In questo lavoro sono stati studiati due metodi cinetici cell-free per la determinazione di OP: uno sfrutta l’acido ascorbico (AA) mentre l’altro il ditiotreitolo (DTT). In entrambi i casi, le reazioni sono state monitorate spettrofotometricamente e le sensibilità dei metodi sono state comparate. I saggi sono inoltre stati applicati ad alcuni campioni reali di PM campionati nell’area di Bologna evidenziando come non sempre la risposta sia correlata alla concentrazione di PM in atmosfera. Questo suggerisce quindi che altri parametri oltre alla concentrazione di PM dovrebbero esser presi in considerazione per valutare gli effetti sulla salute umana.

The present work is focused on the study of chemical composition of atmospheric particulate matter (PM), since this environmental matrix is commonly linked to both human health problems and climate change phenomena. According to these considerations, a growing interest of public opinion and authorities on properties and origin of PM is occurring. In particular, to identify sources of direct emissions of aerosol or precursors of PM in the atmosphere is becomes increasingly important. This crucial information should be provided to competent authorities in order to develop future environmental and health protection policies useful to minimize the effects of air pollution, especially in Po valley that is recognized as one of the worst air quality zones in whole Europe. Chemical composition may give information regarding sources and processes PM undergoes in the atmosphere. The study of its composition is a difficult challenge for analytical chemistry because particulate is composed of thousands of compounds, both organic and inorganic. So far, a complete speciation has not been realized yet. Indeed, modern approaches do not characterize all the compounds present in PM. They identify specific components called markers, i.e. characteristic molecules or molecule classes useful to distinguish anthropogenic from biogenic sources. Moreover, they may provide indications about transformations of precursors compounds from primary sources (SOA: Secondary Organic Aerosol). This study was mainly devoted to the analysis of polar organic fraction of PM, since it may provide important information. The considered markers belong to three chemical classes normally found in PM: low molecular weight carboxylic acids, sugars and phenols. A substantial part of the thesis concerns the development of a multiresidual analytical method suitable for environmental monitoring in order to obtain the maximum information on chemical composition. The considered analytes are usually present in very low concentrations in atmosphere and their concentrations are often below the detection limit of the method, although GC/MS techniques offer high sensitivity. By exploiting the potentiality of MS detector (ion trap), a mass tandem technique for the acquisition of chromatographic signal was studied to further increase analytical sensitivity. The operating parameters were then investigated to choose second fragmentation energies, precursor ion and optimal daughter ions. The results have shown that the MSMS acquisition mode drastically decreases signals due to matrix interferences and background noise. This implementation allowed to decrease limits of detection of about six times for the considered molecules with consequent advantages in analytes determination. A new method for derivatization reaction of analysed polar molecules is still under investigation. In fact, the analysis of such compounds in a gas chromatographic system requires a preliminary derivatization reaction in order to increase volatility improving chromatographic behaviour. The best technique often cited in literature and optimized in previous studies is the silylation with N,O-bis(trimetilsilil)-trifluoroacetammide (BSTFA). This reaction allows to obtain limits of detection that are compatible for environmental analyses but required relatively high temperatures and reaction time (70 minutes at 75°C in water bath). Wishing to improve reaction conditions, instead of heating an alternative system was studied to supply energy to the reaction, i.e. ultrasound. The parameters that mostly affect reaction yield were optimized, in particular temperature, sonication time, BSTFA amount and solvent polarity. A mathematical/statistical approach was used to evaluate the simultaneous effect of various factors performing a limit number of experiments. If compared to the old method, the new one presents the same characteristics in terms of sensitivity but it requires shorter reaction time, lower temperature and lower amount of BSTFA, leading to an improvement in sample treatment procedure. In addition, some sugars typically emitted from biomass burning have been subjected to detailed studies. An intercomparison experiment among ten laboratories was performed in order to assess the comparability of the most common-used analytical techniques (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, ion exchange chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance). The study showed that in most cases the results are comparable, with the gas chromatographic techniques which tend to slightly underestimate the amount of analytes considered. The main activity of the thesis was devoted to air quality monitoring in Emilia Romagna region in the framework of Supersito project. The developed techniques were applied for the analysis of PM2.5 samples which were collected in eight campaigns and performed in different seasons in the period 2011-2014 in two sites in Bologna province (an urban site in the city of Bologna and a rural site in San Pietro Capofiume, 30 km north-east from the city). The obtained results were integrated with data regarding apolar organic fraction (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and alkanes) and carbonaceous fraction (elemental and organic carbon) acquired from other research groups that adhere to Supersito project. More than 100 molecules in near one thousand samples were determined. They provided useful information regarding anthropogenic contribution to PM, mainly due to vehicular transport and residential heating, in particular during cold seasons. Seasonal trends of pollutants were also studied and it was observed that meteorological conditions play a key role regarding analytes concentration in the atmosphere and their relative contribution to PM. Higher concentrations of pollutants and PM were observed in colder periods when limited planetary boundary layer height force the considered compounds in the first hundred meters of the atmosphere. In spring/summer periods, when solar irradiance and temperatures reach high values, a major contribution of secondary fraction of PM was registered together with an enhanced biogenic activity. About domestic heating, wood burning resulted one of the main emission sources of PM and other pollutants, especially during winter when pollution episodes are more frequent. Therefore, part of the work was focused on the study of wood as domestic fuel. The obtained data showed that up to 70% of PM may be originated from wood combustion during colder periods and almost all benzo[a]pyrene results from the same source. Wood combustion problem appears more evident since residential plants using wood as fuel are a small minority. Finally, part of the work has been devoted to the study of oxidative potential (OP) of PM. In fact, many studies described this property as more linked to adverse health effect of PM than mass. OP measures the ability of particulate matter to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can modify redox state of cells with consequent respiratory system problems. Two kinetic cell-free methods have been studied for the determination of OP: one uses ascorbic acid (AA) while the other uses dithiothreitol (DTT). In both cases, the reactions were spectrophotometrically monitored and the sensitivity of the methods was compared. The assays were applied to some real samples of PM collected in Bologna area. The results highlighted that the response is not always linked to PM concentration in the atmosphere. This found suggests that other parameters in addition to PM concentration should be taken into account in assessing the effects of aerosol on human health.

Chemical characterization of atmospheric aerosol for air quality evaluation in Emilia Romagna region

VISENTIN, MARCO
2016

Abstract

The present work is focused on the study of chemical composition of atmospheric particulate matter (PM), since this environmental matrix is commonly linked to both human health problems and climate change phenomena. According to these considerations, a growing interest of public opinion and authorities on properties and origin of PM is occurring. In particular, to identify sources of direct emissions of aerosol or precursors of PM in the atmosphere is becomes increasingly important. This crucial information should be provided to competent authorities in order to develop future environmental and health protection policies useful to minimize the effects of air pollution, especially in Po valley that is recognized as one of the worst air quality zones in whole Europe. Chemical composition may give information regarding sources and processes PM undergoes in the atmosphere. The study of its composition is a difficult challenge for analytical chemistry because particulate is composed of thousands of compounds, both organic and inorganic. So far, a complete speciation has not been realized yet. Indeed, modern approaches do not characterize all the compounds present in PM. They identify specific components called markers, i.e. characteristic molecules or molecule classes useful to distinguish anthropogenic from biogenic sources. Moreover, they may provide indications about transformations of precursors compounds from primary sources (SOA: Secondary Organic Aerosol). This study was mainly devoted to the analysis of polar organic fraction of PM, since it may provide important information. The considered markers belong to three chemical classes normally found in PM: low molecular weight carboxylic acids, sugars and phenols. A substantial part of the thesis concerns the development of a multiresidual analytical method suitable for environmental monitoring in order to obtain the maximum information on chemical composition. The considered analytes are usually present in very low concentrations in atmosphere and their concentrations are often below the detection limit of the method, although GC/MS techniques offer high sensitivity. By exploiting the potentiality of MS detector (ion trap), a mass tandem technique for the acquisition of chromatographic signal was studied to further increase analytical sensitivity. The operating parameters were then investigated to choose second fragmentation energies, precursor ion and optimal daughter ions. The results have shown that the MSMS acquisition mode drastically decreases signals due to matrix interferences and background noise. This implementation allowed to decrease limits of detection of about six times for the considered molecules with consequent advantages in analytes determination. A new method for derivatization reaction of analysed polar molecules is still under investigation. In fact, the analysis of such compounds in a gas chromatographic system requires a preliminary derivatization reaction in order to increase volatility improving chromatographic behaviour. The best technique often cited in literature and optimized in previous studies is the silylation with N,O-bis(trimetilsilil)-trifluoroacetammide (BSTFA). This reaction allows to obtain limits of detection that are compatible for environmental analyses but required relatively high temperatures and reaction time (70 minutes at 75°C in water bath). Wishing to improve reaction conditions, instead of heating an alternative system was studied to supply energy to the reaction, i.e. ultrasound. The parameters that mostly affect reaction yield were optimized, in particular temperature, sonication time, BSTFA amount and solvent polarity. A mathematical/statistical approach was used to evaluate the simultaneous effect of various factors performing a limit number of experiments. If compared to the old method, the new one presents the same characteristics in terms of sensitivity but it requires shorter reaction time, lower temperature and lower amount of BSTFA, leading to an improvement in sample treatment procedure. In addition, some sugars typically emitted from biomass burning have been subjected to detailed studies. An intercomparison experiment among ten laboratories was performed in order to assess the comparability of the most common-used analytical techniques (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, ion exchange chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance). The study showed that in most cases the results are comparable, with the gas chromatographic techniques which tend to slightly underestimate the amount of analytes considered. The main activity of the thesis was devoted to air quality monitoring in Emilia Romagna region in the framework of Supersito project. The developed techniques were applied for the analysis of PM2.5 samples which were collected in eight campaigns and performed in different seasons in the period 2011-2014 in two sites in Bologna province (an urban site in the city of Bologna and a rural site in San Pietro Capofiume, 30 km north-east from the city). The obtained results were integrated with data regarding apolar organic fraction (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and alkanes) and carbonaceous fraction (elemental and organic carbon) acquired from other research groups that adhere to Supersito project. More than 100 molecules in near one thousand samples were determined. They provided useful information regarding anthropogenic contribution to PM, mainly due to vehicular transport and residential heating, in particular during cold seasons. Seasonal trends of pollutants were also studied and it was observed that meteorological conditions play a key role regarding analytes concentration in the atmosphere and their relative contribution to PM. Higher concentrations of pollutants and PM were observed in colder periods when limited planetary boundary layer height force the considered compounds in the first hundred meters of the atmosphere. In spring/summer periods, when solar irradiance and temperatures reach high values, a major contribution of secondary fraction of PM was registered together with an enhanced biogenic activity. About domestic heating, wood burning resulted one of the main emission sources of PM and other pollutants, especially during winter when pollution episodes are more frequent. Therefore, part of the work was focused on the study of wood as domestic fuel. The obtained data showed that up to 70% of PM may be originated from wood combustion during colder periods and almost all benzo[a]pyrene results from the same source. Wood combustion problem appears more evident since residential plants using wood as fuel are a small minority. Finally, part of the work has been devoted to the study of oxidative potential (OP) of PM. In fact, many studies described this property as more linked to adverse health effect of PM than mass. OP measures the ability of particulate matter to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can modify redox state of cells with consequent respiratory system problems. Two kinetic cell-free methods have been studied for the determination of OP: one uses ascorbic acid (AA) while the other uses dithiothreitol (DTT). In both cases, the reactions were spectrophotometrically monitored and the sensitivity of the methods was compared. The assays were applied to some real samples of PM collected in Bologna area. The results highlighted that the response is not always linked to PM concentration in the atmosphere. This found suggests that other parameters in addition to PM concentration should be taken into account in assessing the effects of aerosol on human health.
PIETROGRANDE, Maria Chiara
BIGNOZZI, Carlo Alberto
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Utilizza questo identificativo per citare o creare un link a questo documento: https://hdl.handle.net/11392/2403214
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